The history of Poland is not quite the same as the history of the Polish state. When we talk about the history of Poland, we mean the history of Polish ethnic lands: Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Silesia, East and West Pomerania, Mazovia, Kuyavia. From the Polish state, on the one hand, already in the XIII-XIV centuries. Silesia and Western Pomerania were torn off, on the other - in the XIV-XVI centuries. Thanks to the annexation of a number of Ukrainian lands and the union with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, it included huge new and ethnically non-Polish territories. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed, uniting the Polish, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Lithuanian lands and even part of the Russians. This, so to speak, “drift” from West to East turned out to be an extremely significant geopolitical factor in Polish history and gave rise to a lot of complex problems that make themselves felt to this day.

As for the periodization of Polish history, it can be structured in different ways. If we take the socio-economic criterion, then the entire period of the 9th-18th centuries. will be covered by the concept of “feudalism”, “feudal socio-economic formation”, which went through the stage of formation until the 11th-12th centuries, the stage of maturity and prosperity in the 13th-15th centuries, the stage of transformation into a folk-serf system and decline in the 16th-18th centuries . From this point of view, the 18th century is the century of the genesis of capitalism in the Polish lands.

Applying the sociocultural criterion, we will talk about the eras of the Middle Ages (IX-XV centuries), Renaissance and Reformation in the 16th century, Baroque and Counter-Reformation (XVII - early XVIII centuries) and Enlightenment (from the middle of the 18th century).

Armed with socio-political criteria, we will receive the most detailed and, perhaps, the clearest periodization of the history of Poland: the pre-state period (up to the 9th-10th centuries), the period of a centralized monarchy (10th - early 12th centuries), two centuries of political fragmentation (12th centuries). -XIII), for

followed by two centuries of a single estate-representative monarchy, marked by a progressive rapprochement with Lithuania (XIV-XV), the era of the so-called “gentry democracy” (XVI - mid-XVII centuries), which is replaced by the regime of magnate oligarchy (mid-XVII - mid-XVIII centuries. ). Second half of the 18th century. has every right to be singled out as a separate period in the socio-political development of Poland, which passed under the sign of cardinal political reforms, the first national liberation uprising and the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

POLISH LANDS IN ANCIENTITY

If by “antiquity” we mean the primitive communal system, then this era for Poland will last until approximately 500, i.e. until the end of European antiquity. From the 6th century the formation of statehood and differentiated social structures begins, from the 9th-10th centuries. the history of the medieval Polish state and feudalism is counted. But where does antiquity begin? What time can be taken as the starting point for the history of Polish lands? One of the possible solutions is to recognize as such a milestone the appearance of traces of human occupation in the form of stone tools about 200 thousand years ago. Anthropologically, the first inhabitants of Polish territories were close to Neanderthals.

Most of these two hundred thousand years occur in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic, the features of which are the same in every part of Europe and the world. "Neolithic Revolution", i.e. The transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy, from gathering to agriculture and from hunting to animal husbandry, reached Polish lands in the 5th millennium BC. and lasts until approximately 1700 BC. The Bronze Age (1700 BC - 7th century BC) brings not only new fundamental changes in tools (the transition to metal, bronze), but also important social and cultural changes: the accumulation of wealth is accompanied by the formation tribal aristocracy, which gradually concentrates power in its own hands. Accordingly, in the pagan pantheon, Perun becomes, as it were, the senior god, subjugating others and relegating the mother goddess to the background. Social changes are also reflected in the appearance of demigods - heroes of one or another tribe, buried in huge mounds. The formation of two archaeological cultures and two supposedly corresponding ethnic groups - the West Sorbian Veneti culture and the East Sorbian Nevri culture - also dates back to the Bronze Age. Ethnic attribution

Lusatian culture is the subject of long-standing and unfinished debate among historians. One of the existing historiographical traditions classifies its bearers as the Proto-Slavs, with whom the separation of the Slavs from other Indo-European peoples began. Some scientists consider the identification of the Lusatian culture with the culture of the Proto-Slavs to be unfounded.

But even regardless of these disputes, the fate of the Lusatian culture is mysterious. The fact is that in 650-500. BC. it is experiencing a heyday associated with the transition from bronze to iron tools, the growth of exchange with neighboring tribes, the decomposition of tribal egalitarianism and the clear emergence of a military-tribal elite, whose place of residence is fortified settlements - grods, some of which reach very impressive sizes. As an example, the city in Biskupin, reconstructed by archaeologists, with an area of ​​2 hectares, surrounded by an earthen rampart, and numbering 12 streets paved with logs, converging on a central square, is well known. The population of Biskupin was about 1000 people, which was very large for that era. In general, everything speaks in favor of the fact that in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Proto-Polish tribes were on the verge of forming their own state and social structures of the feudal-medieval type. However, this did not happen. After 500 BC for several centuries, the Lusatian culture plunged into deep decline, most likely caused by climatic reasons, a sharp cooling: the production of metals and ceramics is reduced, the quality of products becomes much rougher than before, hunger forces the population to leave their homes and cultivated lands, on this Inter-tribal clashes are multiplying and intensifying. Only towards the end of the 1st millennium BC. (c. 125-25 AD) there is some stabilization at a lower level, which marked the beginning of two new archaeological cultures that replaced the Lusatian one - Oksyw and Przeworsk.

The first five centuries AD are characterized by Polish historians as a period of Roman influences. This time was characterized by the restoration of iron production, the rise of home crafts, and the gradual, although extremely slow, progress of agriculture and livestock raising. The population is again concentrated not in cities, but in villages, six to seven families each. These settlements are unstable: after the soil was depleted, the inhabitants left them only to return to their old place after 20-30 years. Social differentiation again reaches a certain depth, the distinguished tribal aristocracy is based on a regime typical for all peoples at this stage of development

"military democracy". Ethnically, 90% of the population of Polish lands consists of Slavic tribes, which are commonly called Proto-Polish. Common Slavic pagan ideas nourish the spiritual culture of the population of future Poland. From about the 6th century. a new era begins in the history of the country, which led to the formation of the state and medieval society in IX-X centuries

POLISH TRIBES IN VI-IX centuries

It is almost impossible to calculate what the population of Polish lands was in the VI-IX centuries. According to some estimates, by the end of the 8th century. About 500 thousand lived on the territory of Poland, so the average population density was two people per 1 sq. km. If you believe other hypothetical calculations, the population was larger - 750 thousand people and its density was correspondingly higher - three people per 1 square meter. km, and in fertile areas - up to four people.

The basic demographic, industrial, social unit of society was a large patriarchal family, uniting several generations of relatives under one roof or in one yard. Its main need, dictated by the desire for basic survival and stability, was the acquisition of labor, and not material wealth as such. Hence the institution of patriarchal slavery, the early marriages of sons, accompanied by the tradition of daughter-in-law, a tolerant attitude towards children born out of wedlock, and at the same time a cruel attitude towards the elderly, who turned into a burden for a family teetering on the brink of starvation.

The two main types of settlements were villages and towns. The village was not at all similar to the village familiar to modern people under the same name. At best, it united several courtyards (and often consisted of a single courtyard) with 12-20 inhabitants each. These courtyards, which arose around a hut or half-dugout, rarely formed a street, most often being located quite chaotically. A dozen neighboring villages of this type made up an opole - a social, economic and political structure of a communal type.

The towns acted mainly as defense and administrative centers, the very size and location of which (from a quarter to three quarters of a hectare, on the hills, in river bends or on capes) suggests that they served as the residence of the squad and a refuge for the surrounding population in the event of an external threat. The city, of course, was protected by a palisade, rampart, and ditch. IN

in its center there was usually a small square paved with wood for meetings, ceremonies, meetings and trade, the houses were rather randomly grouped around this square, and the only street was the one that led to it from the gates of the city.

As you remember, in the VI-VII centuries. During the Great Migration of Peoples, Slavic tribes settled in Eastern Europe. In the second half of the 10th century, the Polish prince Mieszko I (960-992) subjugated the tribes that settled along the Vistula River. Together with his 3,000-strong retinue, he accepted the Christian faith and thereby greatly strengthened his power. He laid the foundation for the Polish state, the history of which you will learn in today's lesson.

Mieszko I fought for the unification of the Polish lands, entered into an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire against the Polabian Slavs, but at times supported the German feudal lords against the emperor. The unification of Poland was completed during the reign of Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025). He managed to annex the southern Polish lands. The capital of Poland was moved to the city of Krakow - a large shopping center on the way from Kyiv to Prague. Boleslav I temporarily managed to capture the Czech Republic and Prague, but soon the Czech Republic was freed from his power. Boleslav marched on Kyiv, trying to place his son-in-law on the throne, but to no avail. In the west, he fought long wars with the Holy Roman Empire. Shortly before his death, Bolesław was proclaimed King of Poland (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Poland under Boleslaw the Brave ()

In the middle of the 11th century, Poland entered a period of feudal fragmentation.

In the 13th century, Poland was going through difficult times. There were dozens of small principalities on its territory. By the middle of the 13th century, the Teutonic Order captured all of Prussia and Pomerania. The Tatar invasion was also a great disaster for Poland. In 1241, the Mongol-Tatar army passed through all of Poland, turning cities and villages into piles of ruins. Mongol raids were repeated in the future.

In the XIII-XIV centuries, fragmented Poland was gradually united. As in other countries, ordinary Polish townspeople and peasants, who suffered most from feudal civil strife, knights and gentry, as well as the Polish clergy, oppressed by the Germans, were interested in a single strong state. Strong royal power could protect them from large feudal magnates. The magnates did not need the power of the king: they could defend themselves or suppress any protest of the peasants with the help of detachments of the gentry dependent on them. Cities led by German patricians also did not support the unification of the country. Many large cities (Krakow, Wroclaw, Szczecin) were part of the Hanseatic League and were more interested in trade with other countries than within the country.

The unification of Poland was accelerated by the need to defend against external enemies, especially the Teutonic Order.

At the end of the 13th century, the unification of the Polish lands was led by one of the princes, the energetic Władysław I Loketek (Fig. 2). He entered into a fight with the Czech king, who temporarily united the Czech and Polish lands under his rule. German knights and local magnates opposed Vladislav. The struggle was difficult: Prince Vladislav even had to leave the country for several years. But with the support of the gentry, he managed to break the resistance of his opponents and almost completely take possession of the territory of Poland. In 1320, Vladislav Loketek was solemnly crowned. But it was not possible to establish the king’s power over all of Poland. The magnates retained their possessions, power and influence. Therefore, the unification did not lead to a complete merger of the individual lands: they retained their structure, their governing bodies.

Rice. 2. Vladislav Loketek ()

Loketek's successor Casimir III (1333-1370) (Fig. 3) concluded a peace treaty with the Czech Republic: its king renounced his claims to the Polish throne, but retained some lands of Poland. For a while, Poland stopped the war with the Teutonic Order. Many Polish feudal lords tried to expand their possessions at the expense of the current Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian lands. In the middle of the 14th century, Polish feudal lords captured Galicia and part of Volyn. Therefore, they temporarily abandoned the continuation of the struggle for the complete liberation of the indigenous Polish lands in the west and north of the country.

Rice. 3. Casimir III ()

Childless Casimir transferred the throne to his nephew from his sister, Louis, King of Hungary; The powerful gentry agreed to this transfer because Louis promised not to impose taxes without the consent of the people. During the reign of Louis, the power of the Polish gentry increased noticeably. Louis bequeathed Poland to his daughter Jadwiga, who, under the terms of the Polish-Lithuanian union, married the Lithuanian Prince Jagiello in 1385, who became both the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. But the unification of the two states did not happen. The advantages that Poles and Catholics received in Lithuania caused discontent among the Orthodox part of the principality. Vytautas led the struggle for Lithuanian independence. In 1392, Vytautas became the Grand Duke of the Principality of Lithuania, and Jagiello retained the Polish crown.

Bibliography

1. Agibalova E.V., G.M. Donskoy. History of the Middle Ages. - M., 2012
2. Atlas of the Middle Ages: History. Traditions. - M., 2000
3. Illustrated world history: from ancient times to the 17th century. - M., 1999
4. History of the Middle Ages: book. For reading / Ed. V.P. Budanova. - M., 1999
5. Kalashnikov V. Mysteries of history: The Middle Ages / V. Kalashnikov. - M., 2002
6. Stories on the history of the Middle Ages / Ed. A.A. Svanidze. M., 1996

1. Polska.ru ().
2. Paredox.narod.ru ().
3. Polska.ru ().

Homework

1. When does the period of feudal fragmentation begin in the history of Poland?
2. What external opponents did Poland have to fight with in the Middle Ages?
3. The unification of the fragmented Polish lands is associated with the names of which rulers?
4. How were Poland's relations with the Russian principalities?

Comment: It is better to do the work step by step, sequentially completing tasks for the contour maps. To enlarge the map, simply click on it.

TASKS (part 1)

1. Circle the border of Rus' in 1236.

The border of Rus' in 1236 - green

2. Write the names of the principalities and their centers, highlighted in color on the map.

Novgorod land - Novgorod

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality - Vladimir

Principality of Murom - Murom

Ryazan Principality - Ryazan

Smolensk Principality - Smolensk

Principality of Chernigov - Chernigov

Novgorod - Seversk Principality - Novgorod - Seversky

Pereyaslavl Principality - Pereyaslavl

Principality of Kiev - Kyiv

Volyn Principality - Kholm (mark it on the map yourself)

Principality of Galicia - Galich

3. Use arrows to indicate the campaign of the Russian princes and Polovtsians against the Mongols. Indicate the place and date of the battle, which is mentioned in the chronicle: “Russian princes... fought with the Tatars and were defeated by them, and only a few escaped death; Those who were given the lot to survive ran away, but the rest were killed. Here the good old prince Mstislav was killed, and another Mstislav, and seven more princes died, and a lot of boyars and simple warriors.”

The campaign of the Russian princes and Polovtsians against the Mongols - orange arrow

Place and date of the battle mentioned in the chronicle - 1223, battle on the Kalka River (orange cross near the coast of the Sea of ​​Azov)

4. Show the campaigns of Khan Batu in 1236-1238 and 1239-1242. Highlight in red the names of the cities burned by the Mongols during the campaigns of Batu Khan.

Campaigns of Khan Batu in 1236-1238. - blue arrows

Campaigns of Khan Batu in 1239-1242. - purple arrows

Cities burned by the Mongols during the campaigns of Batu Khan:

• In Rus': Galich, Kostroma, Yuryevets, Gorodets, Gorokhovets, Suzdal, Vladimir, Yuryev, Pereyaslavl, Dmitrov, Torzhok, Tver, Volok-Lamsky, Moscow, Kolomna, Pereyaslavl-Ryazansky, Pronsk, Kozelsk, Murom, Ryazan, Novgorod-Seversky , Putivl, Glukhov, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Kyiv, Kolodyazhen, Kamenets, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Berestye.
• In Volga Bulgaria: Bilyar, Dzhuketau, Bulgar, Suvar.

5. Mark on the map the places and dates of the battles that the chronicles tell about:

1. “And they took the city... in the month of December in 21 days. And they burned the whole city... And they destroyed the temples of God, and shed a lot of blood in the holy altars. And there was not a single living person left in the city... neither moaning nor crying."

The chronicle tells of the capture of Ryazan by Batu Khan in December 1237 - the place is indicated by the number 1.

2. “Prince Yuri with his brother Svyatoslav and his nephews... and his soldiers went against the filthy. Both armies met, and there was a terrible battle, and ours fled before the foreigners, and then Prince Yuri was killed.”

The chronicle tells of the battle on the City River on March 4, 1238 - the place is indicated by the number 2.

3. “The Tatars call his city evil, because they fought near it for seven weeks, and killed the Tatars’ three sons of the Temniks under it.”

The chronicle tells about the siege and capture of the city of Kozelsk, which took place from March to May 1238 - the place is indicated by the number 3.

TASKS (part 2)

1. Color in the territory of the Livonian Order in 1236 and sign its name.

The territory of the Livonian Order is shaded yellow.

2. Use green arrows to show the direction of the Swedes’ campaign against Novgorod land and indicate the year it took place.

The Swedes' campaign against the Novgorod land took place in 1240 (green arrows)

3. Use black arrows to indicate the campaigns of the German knights on the Novgorod land.

The campaigns of the German knights to the Novgorod land are indicated by black arrows.

4. Use red arrows to mark the direction of movement of the army of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich and the Novgorod militia against the Swedes and German knights.

The directions of movement of the troops of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich and the Novgorod militia against the Swedes and German knights are indicated by red arrows.

5. Identify and label in the legend which battles are shown on the map.

Battle of the Neva - On July 15, 1240, a famous battle took place on the Neva River between the Novgorod army under the command of Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich and the Swedish conquerors. The Russian wars became the winners in this battle. The battle became known as the “Battle of the Neva”, and Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich received the honorary nickname “Nevsky”.

Battle of the Ice - On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipus between the Russian army led by Alexander Nevsky and the knights of the Livonian Order. Alexander Nevsky won a crushing victory in it, the troops of the Livonian Order were defeated. The battle has since become known as the “Battle of the Ice.”

Development of feudal relations. In the U.1-XII centuries. Significant progress was observed in agriculture in the Polish lands. The three-field system has spread everywhere. The area of ​​cultivated land increased due to internal colonization. The peasants, escaping feudal oppression, developed new lands, where, however, they soon fell into the former feudal dependence.

In the 11th century In Poland, feudal relations were already established everywhere. Large secular and ecclesiastical land ownership grew as a result of the feudal lords seizing the lands of personally free communal peasants and through the distribution of princely lands. The middle feudal lords became in the 12th century. from conditional holders of estates to patrimonial owners - hereditary feudal owners.

The growth of large land ownership of feudal lords led to a sharp reduction in the number of free communal peasants. The number of registered peasants in the XII-XIII centuries. grew quickly. The main form of rent in the XI-XIII centuries. there was rent in kind. The farm of a dependent peasant was subject to quitrent in kind. The peasants had to bear numerous duties in favor of the prince. In an effort to increase income, the feudal lords increased the size of peasant duties, which met fierce resistance from the peasants. Feudal immunity expanded. Charters of immunity freed magnates from bearing all or part of the duties in favor of the prince and transferred judicial rights over the population into the hands of the feudal lords. Only important criminal offenses were subject to the jurisdiction of the princely court.

The growth of cities. In the XII-XIII centuries. Cities developed rapidly in Poland, which were already significant centers of crafts and trade at that time. The population of cities increased due to runaway peasants. Urban crafts developed. Technical techniques were improved in the pottery, jewelry, woodworking, foundry and metalworking industries of handicraft production. Based on the growth of specialization, new branches of craft arose. Especially great successes in the 13th century. in Poland the production of bitch has reached. Internal trade grew, exchange between cities and rural areas, and between regions of the country as a whole intensified. Money circulation developed. In foreign trade, connections with Russia, the Czech Republic, and Germany played an important role. Transit trade through Krakow and Wroclaw occupied a significant place. Polish cities in the XI-XII centuries. were dependent on the prince and paid him feudal rent and trade duties (myto). In the 13th century. many Polish cities received city law modeled on German law (adapted to Polish conditions). Princes, secular and spiritual feudal lords, seeking to increase their income, began to found cities on their lands, granting their population city rights and significant trade privileges.

German colonization and its significance. In order to increase their income, the feudal lords patronized the broad peasant colonization of the country. Significant benefits were provided to migrant peasants. From the 12th century princes and feudal lords began to encourage German rural and urban colonization, which at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. was especially significant in Silesia and Pomerania. It spread to a lesser extent in Greater and Lesser Poland. German peasant settlers enjoyed special “German rights” in Poland.

Landowners began to transfer Polish peasants to “German law.” At the same time, a uniform regulated order was introduced in money and in kind. Tithes in favor of the church were also regulated. New forms of feudal exploitation, especially money rent, contributed to the rise of productive forces and the growth of cities. German colonization in cities led to the fact that in a number of large centers of Silesia, Greater and Lesser Poland, the top of the urban population - the patriciate - became predominantly German.

The disintegration of Poland into appanages. Based on an alliance with Kievan Rus, Casimir I (1034-1058) began the struggle for the reunification of Polish lands. He managed to subjugate Mazovia and return Silesia. Boleslav II the Bold (1058-1079) sought to continue Casimir's policy. Bolesław II's foreign policy was aimed at achieving Polish independence from the German Empire. In 1076 he was proclaimed king of Poland. But Boleslav II was unable to suppress the speeches of the strengthened secular and spiritual nobility, which was not interested in maintaining a strong central power, which was supported by the Czech Republic and the German Empire. He was forced to flee to Hungary, where he died. Under Bolesław II's successor, Władysław I Herman (1079-1102), Poland began to disintegrate into appanages, entering a period of feudal fragmentation. True, at the beginning of the 12th century. Boleslaw III Wrymouth managed to temporarily restore the political unity of Poland, which was also due to the threat of enslavement hanging over the country from the German Empire.

The appanage system received legal formalization in the so-called Statute of Bolesław III (1138), according to which Poland was divided into appanages between his sons. The statute established. the principle of seniority: the eldest in the clan received supreme power with the title of Grand Duke. The capital was Krakow.

Feudal fragmentation was a natural phenomenon in the development of Poland. And at this time, productive forces continued to develop in agriculture and urban crafts. Economic ties between individual Polish lands grew and strengthened. The Polish people remembered the unity of their land, their ethnic and cultural community.

The period of feudal fragmentation brought difficult trials to the Poles. Politically fragmented Poland was unable to repel the aggression of the German feudal lords and the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.

Poland's struggle against German feudal aggression in the XII-XIII centuries. Mongol-Tatar invasion. Strife over the princely throne between the sons of Bolesław III coincided with increased aggression of German feudal lords into the lands of the Polabian-Baltic Slavs and led to dire political consequences for the Polish people.

In 1157, Margrave Albrecht the Bear captured Branibor, an important strategic point near the Polish borders. In the 70s XII century The political subjugation of the Polabian-Baltic Slavs by the German feudal lords was completed. On the occupied territory, the aggressive German principality of Brandenburg was formed, which began an attack on Polish lands. In 1181, Western Pomerania was forced to recognize vassal dependence on the German Empire.

The international position of the Polish lands sharply worsened after the appearance of the Teutonic Order in the Baltic States, which in 1226 was invited to Poland by the Masovian prince Conrad to fight the Prussians. The Teutonic Order, exterminating the Prussians with fire and sword, founded a strong state on their land, which was under the protection of the papal throne and the German Empire. In 1237, the Teutonic Order merged with the Order of the Swordsmen, which seized lands in the Eastern Baltic. The strengthening of the Teutonic Order and Brandenburg, whose possessions covered Polish lands on both sides, posed a great danger to Poland.

The situation became even worse as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Poland. A significant part of Poland was devastated and plundered (1241). In the battle of Lignetsa, the Mongol-Tatars completely defeated the troops of the Silesian-Polish feudal lords. Invasions of the Mongol-Tatars in 1259 and 1287. were accompanied by the same terrible devastation of Polish lands.

Taking advantage of the weakening of Poland due to the raids of the Mongol-Tatars and the growth of feudal fragmentation, the German feudal lords intensified their offensive on Polish lands.

Establishment of the state unity of Poland. The development of productive forces in agriculture and crafts, the strengthening of economic ties between individual regions of the country, and the growth of cities gradually created the economic prerequisites for the unification of Polish lands into a single state. The process of reunification of Polish lands was significantly accelerated by an external danger - the aggression of the Teutonic Order. The unification of the country was supported by the overwhelming majority of Polish society. The creation of a strong central government capable of limiting the arbitrariness of large feudal lords and organizing the protection of Polish borders met the interests of the Polish people.

At the end of the 13th century. The leading role in the struggle for the unification of the country belonged to the Greater Poland princes. In 1295, Przemyslaw II gradually extended his power to all of Poland and annexed Eastern Pomerania to his possessions. He was crowned with the Polish crown, but he had to cede the Krakow inheritance to the Czech king Wenceslas II. In 1296 Przemysław was killed. The struggle for the unification of the Polish lands was continued by the Brest-Kujaw prince Wladyslaw Loketok, who opposed Wenceslas II of Bohemia, who managed to subjugate both Lesser and Greater Poland to his power. After the death of Wenceslas II (1305) and his son Wenceslas III (1309), Loketok took possession of Krakow and Greater Poland. But East Pomerania was captured by the Teutonic Order (1309). In 1320, Wladyslaw Lokietok was crowned in Krakow with the crown of the Polish kings.

Foreign policy of Casimir III. Capture of Galician Rus'. The struggle for the unification of Polish lands in the middle of the 14th century, under King Casimir III (1333-1370), encountered stubborn resistance from the Teutonic Order and the Luxembourg dynasty. In 1335, through the mediation of Hungary, an agreement was concluded with the Luxemburgs in Visegrad, according to which they renounced their claims to the Polish throne, but retained Silesia. In 1343, the order was forced to make some territorial concessions to Poland. However, East Pomerania was not reunited with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1349-1352 Polish feudal lords managed to capture Galician Rus', and in 1366 - part of Volyn.

Socio-economic development of Poland in the 14th century. The political unification of the country contributed to the economic development of Polish lands. In the 14th century peasants continued to intensively populate forested areas and clear new areas of land, hoping to free themselves from feudal exploitation. However, even in new places, newly settled peasants fell into feudal dependence on large landowners. In the 14th century The category of personally free peasants almost completely disappeared. The feudal lords transferred the peasants to a uniform quitrent - chinsh, contributed in kind and money, which helped to increase the productivity of the peasants and intensify their economy. The income of the feudal lords grew. In some places, along with chinsh, corvée was also practiced on a small scale.

From the end of the 14th century. in connection with the development of commodity-money relations, property differentiation among foreigners has increased

Poland in the XIV-XV centuries.

these peasant peasants. Some of the Kmets turned into land-poor peasants - country dwellers who had only a small plot of land, a house and a vegetable garden. Increasing feudal exploitation caused energetic resistance from the peasantry, which was expressed primarily in escapes.

In the 14th century Urban crafts developed in Poland. Silesia (especially the city of Wroclaw) was famous for its weavers. Krakow was a major center for cloth production. The guild organizations that emerged in the previous period became significantly stronger. Polish cities were the scene of fierce social and national struggle.

In the 14th century Internal trade developed successfully, and trade between city and countryside increased. Fairs were of great importance for strengthening ties between Polish lands. Poland's foreign trade expanded significantly, with consumer goods occupying a significant place in it. Transit trade with the countries of Eastern and Western Europe played an important role. Of particular importance in the 14th century. acquired trade with the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea coast, primarily with Kafa (Feodosia). The coastal cities took an active part in trade along the Baltic Sea.

Economic growth contributed to the development of Polish culture. In the XIII-XIV centuries. city ​​schools teaching in their native language appeared. Of great importance was the opening of the university in Krakow in 1364, which became the second major scientific center in Central Europe.

The incompleteness of the process of unification of Polish lands. State unification of Polish lands in the 14th century. was incomplete: a sufficiently strong central government did not emerge; Mazovia, Silesia and Pomerania were not yet included in the Polish state (Mazovia, however, recognized the supremacy of the Polish king). Individual Polish lands (voivodships) retained their autonomy, local governments were in the hands of large feudal lords. The political and economic dominance of the possible owners was not undermined. The incompleteness of the process of unification of the Polish lands and the relative weakness of the central royal power had deep internal reasons. By the 14th century In Poland, the prerequisites for the creation of a centralized state have not yet matured. The process of forming a single all-Polish market was just beginning. The centralization of the Polish state was hampered by the position of the Polish landowners and the influential patriciates of the cities. The German patriciate of the largest Polish cities, associated mainly with international transit trade, opposed centralization. Therefore, Polish cities did not play a significant role in the unification of the country, unlike the cities of Russia and a number of Western European countries. The struggle for the unification of Polish lands was also hampered by the eastern policy of the Polish feudal lords, who sought to subjugate the Ukrainian lands. This scattered Poland's forces and weakened it in the face of German aggression. The unification of Polish lands, the development of the economy and culture of the Polish state in the 14th century. demanded legislative reform and codification of feudal law. However, no uniform legislation was drawn up for the entire country. In 1347, separate sets of laws were developed for Lesser Poland - the Wislica Statute and for Greater Poland - the Petrokovsky Statute. These statutes, based on customary law that previously existed in Poland, reflected the political and socio-economic changes that had taken place in the country (primarily the strengthening of the process of enslavement of peasants and the transition to a new form of feudal rent - chinshu). The situation of the peasants worsened significantly. The Wislica and Petrokovsky statutes limited the right of peasant transition.

Economic development of Poland in the 15th century. In the XIV-XV centuries. Handicraft production has achieved significant development. An indicator of the growth of productive forces was the widespread use of energy from falling water. The water wheel was used not only in mills, but also in craft production. In the 15th century in Poland the production of linen and cloth, metal products, and food products increased; The mining industry achieved significant success and salt was mined. The urban population grew. In the cities, the struggle between the German patricians and the bulk of the Polish citizens intensified, the process of Polonization of the German population was underway, and the Polish merchant class developed.

The growth of productive forces also occurred in agriculture. Plow cultivation of the land improved, and internal peasant colonization of the country expanded. The total volume of sown areas in the XIV-XV centuries. increased rapidly. In the 15th century Along with natural rent, money rent received great development, contributing to the growth of productivity of peasant labor. From the second half of the 15th century. Labor rent - corvée - began to grow rapidly, mainly on the estates of church feudal lords.

The development of money rent favored an increase in exchange between city and countryside and the growth of the domestic market. The farms of the peasant and feudal lord were more closely connected with the city market.

At the same time, foreign trade developed. For Poland, especially until the mid-15th century, transit trade between Western Europe and the East was of great importance, in which Polish cities located on the important trade route Wroclaw - Krakow - Lviv - Black Sea actively participated. From the second half of the 15th century. The importance of trade across the Baltic Sea increased sharply. The export of Polish ship timber to the West played an important role. Poland was actively involved in the pan-European market.

The growth of gentry privileges. The economic growth of cities did not lead, however, to a change in the balance of class and political forces in Poland at the end of the 14th-15th centuries. Politically and economically, the most influential part of the urban population was the patriciate, who profited from transit trade and had little interest in the development of the Polish economy itself. He easily established contact with feudal lords who were opponents of strengthening central power.

After the death of King Casimir III (1370), the political influence of magnates sharply increased in Poland. The magnates and gentry achieved a privilege in Kosice (1374), which freed the feudal lords from all duties except military service and a small tax of 2 groschen per dain of land. This laid the foundation for the legal formalization of the class privileges of Polish feudal lords and the limitation of royal power. The political dominance of the magnates caused discontent among the gentry. However, speaking against the magnates, the gentry did not seek to strengthen royal power, believing that the growing class organization was a reliable weapon for suppressing the class resistance of the peasants. The growth of political activity of the gentry was facilitated by the emergence of sejmiks - meetings of the gentry of individual voivodeships to resolve local affairs. At the beginning of the 15th century. sejmiks arose in Greater Poland in the second half of the 15th century. - and in Lesser Poland.

At the end of the 15th century. General diets of the entire kingdom began to be convened, consisting of two chambers - the Senate and the embassy hut. The Senate consisted of magnates and dignitaries, the embassy hut - of the gentry - representatives (ambassadors) of local sejmiks. In Poland, a class monarchy began to take shape, which had a pronounced gentry character.

To achieve their political goals, the gentry created temporary unions - confederations, to which cities and the clergy sometimes joined. At first, these unions had an anti-magnate orientation, but usually they served as a weapon in the struggle for noble privileges.

The gentry was the main support of royal power, but its support was bought at the cost of more and more concessions from the monarchy. In 1454, Casimir IV Jagiellonczyk, in order to enlist the support of the gentry in the war with the order, was forced to issue the Niesza Statutes, which limited royal power. Without the consent of the gentry, the king did not have the right to issue new laws and start a war. To the detriment of the interests of the monarchy and cities, the gentry were allowed to create their own zemstvo courts. The statutes of 1454 were an important stage in the development of the Polish estate monarchy. A feature of this process in Poland was the actual exclusion of cities from participation in representative bodies of government.

Polish-Lithuanian Union. The fight against the Teutonic Order encouraged Polish magnates to seek unification with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was also subject to attacks by the order. In 1385, the Polish-Lithuanian union was concluded in Kreva. Polish magnates sought the inclusion of Lithuania into the Polish state and the introduction of Catholicism in it. Queen Jadwiga in 1386 married the Lithuanian prince Jagiello, who became the Polish king under the name Władysław II (1386-1434). The union of the two powers was not only a means of defense against German aggression, but also opened up the possibility for Polish feudal lords to exploit the rich Ukrainian lands previously seized by Lithuania. An attempt to completely incorporate Lithuania into Poland met resistance from the feudal lords of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The popular masses resisted the introduction of Catholicism. The opposition was led by Jogaila's cousin Vitovt. The union was dissolved. But in 1401 it was restored while maintaining the state independence of Lithuania.

Battle of Grunwald. In 1409, the “Great War” broke out with the Teutonic Order. The general battle took place on July 15, 1410 near Grunwald, where the flower of the order's troops was completely defeated and destroyed. Despite this victory, the Polish-Lithuanian side did not achieve major results. Nevertheless, the historical significance of the Battle of Grunwald was great. She stopped the aggression of the German feudal lords against Poland, Lithuania and Rus', and undermined the power of the Teutonic Order. With the decline of the order, the forces of German feudal aggression in Central Europe weakened, which made it easier for the Polish people to fight for their national independence. The victory at Grunwald contributed to the growth of the international importance of the Polish state.

Return of the Gdańsk Pomerania. After the election of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV Jagiellonczyk (1447-1492) to the Polish throne, the Polish-Lithuanian personal union was restored. During his reign, a new war between Poland and the Teutonic Order began, which lasted 13 years and ended in the victory of Poland. According to the Treaty of Torun in 1466, Poland regained Eastern Pomerania with Chelminsk land and Gdansk and part of Prussia, and access to the Baltic Sea was again obtained. The Teutonic Order recognized itself as a vassal of Poland.

The history of each country is shrouded in secrets, beliefs and legends. The history of Poland was no exception. In its development, Poland has experienced many ups and downs. Several times it fell into the occupation of other countries, was barbarously divided, which led to devastation and chaos, but despite this, Poland, like a phoenix, always rose from the ashes and became even stronger. Today Poland is one of the most developed European countries, with a rich culture, economy and history.

The history of Poland dates back to the 6th century. Legend says that there once lived three brothers, and their names were Lech, Czech and Russ. They wandered with their tribes through various territories and finally found a cozy place that stretched between the rivers called the Vistula and the Dnieper. Towering above all this beauty was a large and ancient oak tree, on which was an eagle’s nest. Here Lech decided to found the city of Gniezno. And the eagle, from which it all began, began to sit on the coat of arms of the founded state. The brothers went on to seek their happiness. And so two more states were founded: the Czech Republic in the south, and Rus' in the east.

The first documented memories of Poland date back to 843. The author, who was nicknamed the Bavarian Geographer, described the tribal settlement of the Lechites, who lived in the territory between the Vistula and Odra. It had its own language and culture. And it was not subordinate to any neighboring state. This territory was remote from the commercial and cultural centers of Europe, which for a long time kept it hidden from the onslaught of nomads and conquerors. In the 9th century, several large tribes emerged from the Lechites:

1. Polyana - established their settlement in the territory that was later called Greater Poland. The main centers were Gniezno and Poznan;
2. Vistula - with its center in Krakow and Wislicia. This settlement was called Lesser Poland;
3. Mazovszane – center in Płock;
4. Kujawians, or, as the Goplians were also called, in Kruszwitz;
5. Ślęzyany – center of Wrocław.

The tribes could boast of a clear hierarchical structure and primitive state foundations. The territory where the tribes lived was called “opole”. It was ruled by elders - people from the most ancient families. In the center of each “opole” there was a “grad” - a fortification that protected people from bad weather and enemies. The elders sat hierarchically at the highest level of the population, they had their own retinue and security. All issues were resolved at a meeting of men - “veche”. Such a system shows that even in times of tribal relations, the history of Poland developed in a progressive and civilized manner.

The most developed and powerful of all the tribes was the Vistula tribe. Situated in the Upper Vistula basin, they had large and fertile lands. The center was Krakow, which was connected by trade routes with Russia and Prague. Such comfortable living conditions attracted more and more people, and soon the Vistula became the largest tribe, with developed external and political contacts. It is generally accepted that they already had their own “prince sitting on the Vistula.”

Unfortunately, almost no information has survived about the ancient princes. We know only about one prince of Polyan, named Popel, who sat in the city of Gnezdo. The prince was not very good and fair, and for his actions he received what he deserved; he was first overthrown, and then expelled from everyone. The throne was occupied by a simple hard worker Semovit, the son of the plowman Piast and the woman Repka. He ruled with dignity. Together with him, two more princes sat in power - Lestko and Semomysl. They united various neighboring tribes under their rule. The conquered cities were ruled by their governors. They also built new castles and fortifications for defense. The prince had a developed squad and thereby kept the tribes in obedience. Prince Semovit prepared such a good bridgehead for his son, the great and just first ruler of Poland, Meshko I.

Mieszko I sat on the throne from 960 to 992. During his reign, the history of Poland underwent a number of radical changes. He doubled his territories by conquering Gdańsk Pomerania, Western Pomerania, Silesia and the Vistula lands. He turned them into rich territories, both demographically and economically. The number of his squad was several thousand, which helped restrain the tribes from uprisings. In his state, Mieszko I introduced a tax system for peasants. Most often these were food and agricultural products. Sometimes taxes were paid in the form of services: construction, crafts, etc. This helped to upset the state and prevent people from giving away their last piece of bread. This method suited both the prince and the population. The ruler also had monopoly rights - “regalia” for increasingly significant and profitable areas of the economy, for example, coinage, mining of precious metals, market fees, and fees from beaver hunting. The prince was the sole ruler of the country, he was surrounded by a retinue and several military leaders who assisted in state affairs. Power was transferred according to the principle of “primogeniture” and within the ranks of one dynasty. With his reforms, Mieszko I won the title of founder of the Polish state, with a developed economy and defense capability. His marriage to Princess Dobrava from the Czech Republic and the holding of this ceremony according to the Catholic rite became the impetus for the adoption of Christianity by a once pagan state. This marked the beginning of Poland's acceptance by Christian Europe.

Boleslav the Brave

After the death of Meshko I, his son Boleslav (967-1025) ascended the throne. For his fighting power and courage in defending his country, he received the nickname Brave. He was one of the smartest and most inventive politicians. During his reign, the country expanded its possessions and significantly strengthened its position on the world map. At the beginning of his journey, he was actively involved in various missions to introduce Christianity and his power into the territories occupied by the Prussians. They were peaceful in nature and in 996 he sent Bishop Adalbert, in Poland he was called Wojciech Slawnikowiec, to the territories controlled by the Prussians to preach Christianity. In Poland he was called Wojciech Slawnikowiec. A year later he was killed, cut into several pieces. To ransom his body, the prince paid as much gold as the bishop weighed. The Pope heard this news and canonized Bishop Adalbert, who over the years became the heavenly protector of Poland.

After failed peace missions, Bolesław began to annex territories using fire and weapons. He increased the size of his squad to 3,900 mounted soldiers and 13,000 infantry, turning his army into one of the largest and most powerful. The desire to win led to ten years of problems for Poland with a state like Germany. In 1002, Boleslav seized the territories that were under the control of Henry II. Also, 1003-1004 was marked by the seizure of territories that belonged to the Czech Republic, Moravia and a small part of Slovakia. In 1018, the Kyiv throne was occupied by his son-in-law Svyatopolk. True, he was soon overthrown by the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Boleslav signed an agreement with him guaranteeing non-aggression, since he considered him a good and smart ruler. Another path to diplomatic resolution of conflicts was the Gnieznay Congress (1000). This was Boleslaw's meeting with the German ruler Otto III, during a pilgrimage to the tomb of the holy Bishop Wojciech. At this congress, Otto III nicknamed Boleslav the Brave his Brother and Partner of the Empire. He also placed a diadem on his head. In turn, Boleslav presented the German ruler with the brush of the holy bishop. This union led to the creation of an archbishopric in the city of Gniezno and bishoprics in several cities, namely Krakow, Wroclaw, Kolobrzeg. Bolesław the Brave, through his efforts, developed the policy begun by his father to promote Christianity in Poland. Such recognition from Otto III and later the Pope led to the fact that on April 18, 1025, Boleslaw the Brave was crowned and became the first King of Poland. Boleslav did not enjoy the title for a long time and died a year later. But the memory of him as a good ruler lives on today.

Despite the fact that power in Poland was passed from father to eldest son, Boleslav the Brave bequeathed the throne to his favorite - Mieszko II (1025-1034), and not Besprima. Mieszko II did not distinguish himself as a good ruler even after several high-profile defeats. They led to the fact that Mieszko II renounced the royal title and divided the appanage lands between his younger brother Otto and his close relative Dietrich. Although until the end of his life he was still able to reunite all the lands, he failed to achieve the former power for the country.

The destroyed lands of Poland and feudal fragmentation, this is what Mieszko II’s eldest son, Casimir, who later received the nickname “Restorer” (1038-1050), inherited from his father. He established his residence in Kruszwitz and this became the center of defensive missions against the Czech king, who wanted to steal the relics of Bishop Adalbert. Casimir started the war of liberation. The first to become his enemy was Metslav, who occupied large areas of Poland. It was a huge stupidity to attack such a powerful opponent alone, and Casimir asked for the support of the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav the Wise not only helped Casimir in military affairs, but also became related to him by marrying him to his sister Maria Dobronega. The Polish-Russian army actively fought against the army of Metslav, and Emperor Henry III attacked the Czech Republic, thereby removing Czech troops from the territory of Poland. Casimir the Restorer gets the opportunity to freely restore his state, his economic and military policies have brought many positive changes to the life of the country. In 1044, he actively expanded the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and moved his court to Krakow, making it the central city of the country. Despite Metslav's attempts to attack Krakow and overthrow the Piast heir from the throne, Casimir mobilizes all his forces in time and deals with the enemy. At the same time, in 1055, he annexed Slask, Mazowsza and Silesia, once controlled by the Czechs, to his possessions. Casimir the Restorer became a ruler who managed, bit by bit, to unite and transform Poland into a strong and developed state.

After the death of Casimir the Restorer, an internecine struggle for the throne broke out between Bolesław II the Generous (1058-1079) and Władysław Herman (1079-1102). Bolesław II continued the policy of conquest. He repeatedly attacked Kyiv and the Czech Republic, fought against the policies of Henry IV, which led to the fact that in 1074 Poland declared its independence from the imperial power and became a state that was under the protection of the Pope. And already in 1076 Boleslav was crowned and recognized as the King of Poland. But the strengthening of the power of the magnates, and the constant battles that tired the people, led to an uprising. It was headed by his younger brother Vladislav. The king was overthrown and expelled from the country.

Vladislav German took power. He was a passive politician. He renounced the title of king and returned the title of prince. All his actions were aimed at reconciliation with his neighbors: peace treaties were signed with the Czech Republic and the Roman Empire, taming local magnates and fighting the aristocracy. This led to the loss of some territories and the displeasure of the people. Uprisings began against Władysław, led by his sons (Zbigniew and Bolesław). Zbigniew became the ruler of Greater Poland, Boleslaw - Lesser Poland. But this situation did not suit the younger brother, and on his orders the older brother was blinded and expelled because of his alliance with the Roman Empire and the invasion of Poland. After this event, the throne completely passed to Boleslav Wrymouth (1202-1138). He defeated German and Czech troops several times, which led to further reconciliation between the heads of these states. Having dealt with external problems, Boleslav set his sights on Pomerania. In 1113, he captured the area near the Notets River, also the Naklo fortress. And already 1116-1119. subjugated Gdansk and Pomerania in the east. Unprecedented battles were fought to capture Western Primorye. A rich and developed region. A series of successful operations carried out in 1121 led to the fact that Szczecin, Rügen, Wolin recognized the suzerainty of Poland. A policy began to promote Christianity in these territories, which further strengthened the significance of the prince’s power. The Pomeranian bishopric was opened in Wolin in 1128. Uprisings broke out in these territories more than once, and Bolesław pledged Danish support to put them out. For this, he gave the territory of Rügen to Danish rule, but the remaining territories remained under the overlord of Poland, although not without homage to the emperor. Before his death in 1138, Bolesław Wrymouth created a will - a statute according to which he divided the territories between his sons: the eldest Władysław sat in Silesia, the second, named Bolesław, in Mazovia and Kuyavia, the third Mieszko - in part of Greater Poland with the center in Poznan, the fourth son Henry, received Lublin and Sandomierz, and the youngest, named Casimir, was left in the care of his brothers without lands or power. The remaining lands passed into the power of the eldest of the Piast family and formed an autonomous inheritance. He created a system called the seigneurate - the center of which was in Krakow with the power of the great Krakow prince-princeps. He had sole power over all territories, Pomerania and dealt with foreign policy, military and church issues. This led to feudal strife for a period of 200 years.

True, there was one positive moment in the history of Poland, which is associated with the reign of Boleslav Krivoust. After the Second World War, it was its territorial borders that were taken as the basis as the borders for the restoration of modern Poland.

The second half of the 12th century for Poland, as well as for Kievan Rus and Germany, became a turning point. These states collapsed, and their territories came under the rule of vassals, who, together with the church, minimized his power, and then began not to recognize it at all. This led to greater independence for the once controlled areas. Poland began to look more and more like a feudal country. Power was concentrated in the hands not of the prince, but of the large landowner. Villages were populated and new systems of land cultivation and harvesting were actively introduced. A three-field system was introduced, and they began to use a plow and a water mill. The reduction of princely taxes and the development of market relations led to the fact that villagers and artisans received the right to dispose of their goods and money. This significantly increased the peasant’s standard of living, and the landowner received better quality work. Everyone benefited from this. Decentralization of power made it possible for large landowners to establish vibrant work, and then trade in goods and services. Constant internecine wars between princes who forgot to deal with state affairs only contributed to this. And soon Poland actively began to develop as a feudal-industrial state.

The 13th century in the history of Poland was troubled and joyless. Poland was attacked from the east by the Mongol-Tatars, and the Lithuanians and Prussians attacked from the north. The princes made attempts to defend themselves from the Prussians and convert the pagans to Christianity, but they were not crowned with success. In despair, Prince Konrad of Mazovia in 1226. called for help from the Teutonic Order. He gave them the Chelma land, although the order did not stop there. The Crusaders had material and military means at their disposal, and also knew how to build fortifications. This made it possible to conquer part of the Baltic lands and establish a small state there - East Prussia. It was settled by immigrants from Germany. This new country limited Poland's access to the Baltic Sea and actively threatened the integrity of Polish territory. So the saving Teutonic Order soon became the unspoken enemy of Poland.

In addition to the Prussians, Lithuanians and Crusaders, an even bigger problem arose in Poland in the 40s - the Mongol invasion. Which has already managed to conquer Rus'. They burst into the territory of Lesser Poland and, like a tsunami, swept away everything in their path. In 1241 In April, a battle took place on the territory of Silesia, near Legnica, between the knights under the leadership of Henry the Pious and the Mongols. Prince Mieszko, knights from Greater Poland, from the orders: Teutonic, Johannite, Templar, came to support him. 7-8 thousand warriors gathered in the sum. But the Mongols had more coordinated tactics, more weapons and used gas, which was intoxicating. This led to the defeat of the Polish army. No one knows whether it was the resistance or the fortitude of the Poles, but the Mongols left the country and never attacked again en masse. Only in 1259 and in 1287 repeated their attempt, which was more like an attack for the purpose of robbery than conquest.

After the victory over the conquerors, the history of Poland took its natural course. Poland recognized that supreme power was concentrated in the hands of the Pope and paid him tribute annually. The Pope had great power in resolving all internal and external issues in Poland, which preserved its integrity and unity, and also developed the culture of the country. The foreign policy of all the princes, although ambitiously aimed at expanding their territories, was not realized in practice. Internal expansion reached a great level, when each prince wanted to colonize as many territories as possible within the country itself. The feudal division of society was reinforced by status inequality. The number of serfs increased. The number of emigrants from other countries, for example Germans and Flemings, also increased, who brought their innovations to legal and other management systems. Such colonists, in turn, received land, money and incredible freedom of action to develop the economy. This attracted more and more immigrants to the territory of Poland, the population density increased, and the quality of labor increased. Which led to the emergence of German cities in Silesia that were governed by the Magdeburg Law, or as it was also called the Chelmin Law. The first such city was Środa Śląska. Rather, such legal management spread to the entire territory of Poland and almost all spheres of life of the population.

A new stage in the history of Poland began in 1296, when Władysław Lokietok (1306-1333) from Kuyavia began the path to reunite all lands together with Polish knights and some burghers. He achieved success and in a short time united Lesser and Greater Poland and the Promorye. But in 1300, Vladislav fled from Poland due to the fact that the Czech prince Wenceslas II became king and he did not want to enter into an unequal battle with him. After Vlaclav's death, Vladislav returned to his native country and began to gather the lands back together. In 1305 he regained power in Kuyavia, Sieradz, Sandomierz and Łęczyce. And a year later in Krakow. Suppressed a number of uprisings in 1310 and 1311. in Poznan and Krakow. In 1314 it united with the Principality of Greater Poland. In 1320 he was crowned and returned royal power to the territory of fragmented Poland. Despite his nickname Loketok, which Wladyslaw received due to his short stature, he became the first ruler who began the path to restoring the Polish state.

His father's work was continued by his son Casimir III the Great (1333-1370). His rise to power is considered to be the beginning of Poland's golden era. The country came to him in a very deplorable state. The Czech king Jan of Luxembourg wanted to capture Lesser Poland, Greater Poland was terrorized by the crusaders. In order to preserve the shaky peace, Casimir signed a non-aggression treaty with the Czech Republic in 1335, while giving him the territory of Silesia. In 1338, Casimir, with the help of the Hungarian king, who was also his brother-in-law, captured the city of Lviv and united Galician Rus' with his country through a union. The history of Poland in 1343 experienced the first peace agreement - the so-called “eternal peace”, which was signed with the Teutonic Order. The knights returned the territories of Kuyavia and Dobrzynsk to Poland. In 1345 Casimir decided to return Silesia. This led to the start of the Polish-Czech War. The battles for Poland were not very successful, and Casimir was forced on November 22, 1348. sign a peace treaty between Poland and Charles I. The lands of Silesia remained assigned to the Czech Republic. In 1366, Poland captured the Belsk, Kholm, Volodymyr-Volyn lands and Podolia. Within the country, Casimir also carried out many reforms according to Western models: in management, the legal system, and the financial system. In 1347 he issued a set of laws called the Wislica Statutes. He eased the duties of the Christians. Sheltered Jews who fled Europe. In 1364, in the city of Krakow, he opened the first university in Poland. Casimir the Great was the last ruler of the Piast dynasty, and through his efforts he revived Poland, making it a large and strong European state.

Despite the fact that he married 4 times, not a single wife gave Casimir a son and his nephew Louis I the Great (1370-1382) became the heir to the Polish throne. He was one of the most just and influential rulers in all of Europe. During his reign, the Polish gentry in 1374. received a lead, which was called Koshitsky. According to it, the nobles could not pay most of all taxes, but for this, they promised to give the throne to Louis’s daughter.

And so it happened, the daughter of Louis Jadwiga was given as a wife to the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiel, which opened a new page in the history of Poland. Jagiello (1386-1434) became the ruler of two states. In Poland he was known as Vladislav II. He began the path to unify the Principality of Lithuania with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1386 In the city of Krevo, the so-called Krevo Pact was signed, according to which Lithuania was included in Poland, which made it the largest country of the 15th century. According to this pact, Lithuania accepted Christianity, providing itself with assistance from the Catholic Church and the Pope. The prerequisites for such a union for Lithuania were a tangible threat from the Order of the Teutonic Knights, the Tatar navala and the Moscow principality. Poland, in turn, wanted to protect itself from the oppression of Hungary, which began to lay claim to the lands of Galician Rus. Both the Polish gentry and the Lithuanian boyars supported the union as an opportunity to gain a foothold in new territories and gain new markets. The unification, however, did not go very smoothly. Lithuania was a state in which power lay in the hands of the prince and feudal lord. Many, namely Jogaila’s brother, Vytautas, could not come to terms with the fact that after the union the prince’s rights and freedoms would decrease. And in 1389 Vitov enlisted the support of the Teutonic Order and attacked Lithuania. The fighting continued from 1390-1395. although already in 1392 Vytautas reconciled with his brother and became the ruler of Lithuania, and Jagiello ruled in Poland.

Wayward behavior and constant attacks from the Teutonic Order led to the fact that in 1410. Lithuania, Poland, Rus' and the Czech Republic united and held a large-scale battle at Gryuwald, where they defeated the knights and got rid of their oppression for some time.

In 1413 In the city of Gorodlya, all issues regarding the unification of the state were clarified. The Union of Gorodel decided that the Lithuanian prince was appointed by the Polish king with the participation of the Lithuanian council, the two rulers had to hold joint meetings with the participation of the lords, the post of voivode and castellans became a novelty in Lithuania. Following this union, the Principality of Lithuania embarked on the path of development and recognition, and turned into a strong and independent state.

After the union, Casimir Jagiellonczyk (1447-1492) ascended the throne in the Principality of Lithuania, and his brother Vladislav took the throne in Poland. In 1444 King Vladislav died in battle, and power passed into the hands of Casimir. This renewed the personal union and for a long time made the Jagiellonian dynasty heirs to the throne, both in Lithuania and Poland. Casimir wanted to reduce the power of the nobles, as well as the church. But he failed, and he was forced to come to terms with their right to vote during the Diet. In 1454 Casimir provided representatives of the nobility with the so-called Neshava Statutes, which resembled the Magna Carta in their content. In 1466 A joyful and very expected event occurred - the end of the 13th war with the Teutonic Order came. The Polish state won. October 19, 1466 A peace treaty was signed in Toruń. After him, Poland regained territories such as Pomerania and Gdansk, and the order itself was recognized as a vassal of the country.

In the 16th century, the history of Poland experienced its dawn. It has become one of the largest states in all of Eastern Europe, with a rich culture, economy and constant development. Polish became the official language and replaced Latin. The concept of law as power and freedom for the population took root.

With the death of Jan Olbracht (1492-1501), a struggle began between the state and the dynasty that was in power. The Jagiellonian family faced the displeasure of the wealthy population - the gentry, who refused to give duties for their benefit. There was also a threat of expansion from the Habsburgs and the Principality of Moscow. In 1499 The Gorodel Union was resumed, for which the king was elected at elective congresses of the gentry, although the applicants were only from the ruling dynasty, thus the gentry received their spoonful of honey. In 1501, the Lithuanian prince Alexander, for a place on the Polish throne, issued the so-called Melnitsky privelei. Behind him, power was in the hands of parliament, and the king only had the function of chairman. Parliament could impose a veto - a ban on the ideas of the monarch, and also make decisions on all issues of the state without the participation of the king. Parliament became two chambers - the first chamber was the Sejm, with the minor nobility, the second was the Senate, with the aristocracy and clergy. Parliament controlled all expenses of the monarch and issued sanctions for the receipt of funds. The higher ranks of the population demanded even more concessions and privileges. As a result of such reforms, actual power was concentrated in the hands of magnates.

Sigismund I (1506-1548) the Old and his son Sigismund Augustus (1548-1572) put all their efforts into reconciling the conflicting parties and meeting the needs of these versts of the population. It was customary to place the king, senate and ambassadors on equal terms. This somewhat calmed the growing protests within the country. In 1525 The master of the Teutonic Knights, whose name was Albrecht of Brandenburg, was initiated into Lutheranism. Sigismund the Old gave him possession of the Duchy of Prussia, although he remained the overlord of these places. This unification, two centuries later, turned these territories into a strong empire.

In 1543, another outstanding event occurred in the history of Poland. Nicolaus Copernicus stated, proved and even published a book that the earth is not the center of the universe and rotates around its axis. In medieval times, the statement is shocking and risky. But later, it was confirmed.

During the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548-1572). Poland flourished and became one of the powerful powers in Europe. He turned his hometown of Krakow into a cultural center. Poetry, science, architecture, and art were revived there. It was there that the Reformation began. On November 28, 1561, an agreement was signed, under which Livonia came under the protection of the Polish-Lithuanian country. Russian feudal lords received the same rights as Catholic Poles. In 1564 allowed the Jesuits to carry out their activities. In 1569, the so-called Union of Lublin was signed, after which Poland and Lithuania united into one state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This marked the beginning of a new era. The king is one person for two states and he was elected by the ruling aristocracy, laws were adopted by parliament, and a single currency was introduced. For a long time, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became one of the largest countries territorially, second only to Russia. This was the first step towards gentry democracy. The legal and economic system was strengthened. The safety of citizens was ensured. The gentry received the green light in all their endeavors, as long as they benefited the state. For a long time, this state of affairs suited everyone, both the population and the monarchs.

Sigismund Augustus died without leaving an heir, which led to the fact that kings began to be elected. 1573 Henry of Valois was chosen. His reign lasted a year, but in such a short time he accepted the so-called “free election”, according to which the gentry chooses the king. A pact of agreement was also adopted - an oath for the king. The king could not even appoint an heir, declare war, or increase taxes. All these issues had to be agreed upon by parliament. Even the king's wife was selected by the senate. If the king behaved inappropriately, the people could disobey him. Thus, the king remained only for the title, and the country turned from a monarchy into a parliamentary republic. Having done business, Henry calmly left France, where he sat on the throne after the death of his brother.

After this, parliament was unable to appoint a new monarch for a long time. In 1575, having married a princess from the Jagiellonian family to the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory, they turned him into a ruler (1575-1586). He made a number of good reforms: he strengthened himself in Gdansk, Livonia and freed the Baltic states from the attacks of Ivan the Terrible. Received support from the registered Cossacks

(Sigismund Augustus was the first to apply such a term to fugitive peasants from Ukraine when he took them into military service) in the fight against the Ottoman army. He singled out the Jews, giving them privileges and allowing them to have a parliament within the community. In 1579 opened a university in Vilnius, which became the center of European and Catholic culture. Foreign policy was aimed at strengthening its positions on the part of Muscovy, Sweden and Hungary. Stefan Batory became the monarch who began to restore the country to its former glory.

Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632) received the throne, but did not receive support from either the gentry or the population. They simply didn't like him. Since 1592 Sigismund's fixed idea was to spread and strengthen Catholicism. In the same year he was crowned King of Sweden. He did not exchange Poland for Lutheran Sweden and, due to his failure to appear in the country and not to conduct political affairs, he was overthrown from the Swedish throne in 1599. Attempts to regain the throne brought Poland into a long and unequal war with such a powerful enemy. The first step towards transferring Orthodox subjects to complete submission to the Pope was the Berestey Union of 1596. which was initiated by the king. The Uniate Church got its start - with Orthodox rituals, but with subordination to the Pope. In 1597 he moved the capital of Poland from the city of kings of Krakow to the center of the country - Warsaw. Sigismund wanted to return an absolute monarchy to Poland, limit all the rights of parliament, and slowed down the development of voting. In 1605 ordered that the veto power of parliament be destroyed. The reaction was not long in coming. And a citizen uprising broke out in 1606. The Rokosh uprising ended in 1607. July 6. Although Sigismund suppressed the uprising, his reforms were never accepted. Sigismund also brought the country into a state of war with Muscovy and Moldavia. In 1610 The Polish army occupies Moscow, winning the Battle of Klushino. Sigismund places his son Vladislav on the throne. Although they could not retain power. The people rebelled and overthrew the Polish ruler. In general, Sigismund's reign brought more harm and destruction to the country than development.

Sigismund's son Vladislav IV (1632-1648) became the ruler of a country that was weakened by the war with Muscovy and Turkey. Ukrainian Cossacks attacked its territory. Enraged by the situation in the country, the gentry demanded even more liberties and also refused to pay income tax. The situation in the country was bleak.

The situation did not improve under the leadership of Jan Casimir (1648-1668). The Cossacks continued to torment the territory. The Swedes did not refuse such pleasure either. In 1655 A Swedish king named Charles X conquered the cities of Krakow and Warsaw. The cities passed from one army to another several times, the result was their total destruction and death of the population. Poland was tormented by constant battles, the king fled to Silesia. In 1657 Poland lost Prussia. In 1660 The long-awaited truce between the rulers of Poland and Sweden was signed in Oliwa. But Poland continued the exhausting war with Muscovy, which led to the loss of Kyiv and the eastern banks of the Dnieper in 1667. There were uprisings within the country, tycoons, guided only by their own interests, destroyed the state. In 1652 it got to the point where the so-called “liberium veto” was used for personal interests. Any deputy could vote to reject a law he did not like. Chaos began in the country, and Jan Casimir could not stand it and abdicated the throne in 1668.

Mikhail Vishnevetsky (1669-1673) also did not improve life in the country, and also lost Podolia, giving it to the Turks.

After such a reign, Jan III Sobieski (1674-1696) ascended the throne. He began to regain territories that had been lost during numerous military operations. In 1674 went on a campaign with the Cossacks to liberate Podolia. In August 1675 defeated a large Turkish-Tatar army near the city of Lvov. France, as protector of Poland, insisted on a peace treaty between Poland and Turkey in 1676. In October of that year, the so-called Zhuravino peace was signed, after which Turkey gave 2/3 of the territory that belonged to Ukraine to Poland, and the remaining territory became at the disposal of the Cossacks. February 2, 1676 Sobieski was crowned and given the name Jan III. Despite the support of the French, Jan Sobieski wanted to get rid of Turkish oppression and on March 31, 1683, he entered into an alliance with Austria. This event led to the offensive of the troops of Sultan Mehmed IV against Austria. The army of Kara-Mustafa Koprulu captured Vienna. On September 12 of the same year, Jan Sobieski with his army and the army of the Austrians near Vienna defeated enemy troops, stopping the Ottoman Empire from advancing into Europe. But the looming threat from the Turks forced Jan Sobieski in 1686. sign an agreement called “Eternal Peace” with Russia. Russia received Left Bank Ukraine at its disposal and joined the coalition against the Ottoman Empire. Domestic policies aimed at restoring hereditary power were unsuccessful. And the act of the queen, who offered to occupy various government positions for money, completely shook the power of the ruler.

For the next 70 years, the Polish throne was occupied by various foreigners. Ruler of Saxony – Augustus II (1697-1704, 1709-1733). He enlisted the support of Moscow Prince Peter I. He managed to return Podolia and Volyn. In 1699 concluded the so-called Charles Peace with the ruler of the Ottoman Empire. He fought, but without results, with the kingdom of Sweden. And in 1704 left the throne at the insistence of Charles XII, who gave power to Stanislav Leshchinsky.

The decisive battle for Augustus was the battle near Poltava in 1709, in which Peter I defeated the Swedish troops, and he returned to the throne again. 1721 brought the final victory of Poland and Russia over Sweden, ending the Northern War. This did not bring any positive results for Poland, because it lost its independence. At the same time, it became part of the Russian Empire.

His son Augustus III (1734-1763) became a doll in the hands of Rossi. The local population, under the leadership of Prince Czartoryski, wanted to cancel the so-called “liberium veto” and return Poland to its former greatness. But the coalition led by the Pototskys did their best to prevent this. And 1764 Catherine II helped Stanisław August Poniatkowski (1764-1795) ascend the throne. He was destined to become the last king of Poland. He made a number of progressive changes in the monetary and legislative system, replaced cavalry with infantry in the army and introduced new types of weapons. I wanted to cancel the liberium veto. In 1765 introduced such an award as the Order of St. Stanislaus. The gentry, dissatisfied with such changes, in 1767-1678. held the Repninsky Sejm, at which they decided that all freedoms and privileges remained with the gentry, and that Orthodox citizens and Protestants had the same state rights as Catholics. Conservatives did not miss the chance to create their own union, called the Bar Conference. Such events sparked a civil war, and interference in its course by neighboring countries became undeniable.

The result of this situation was the first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which took place on July 25, 1772. Austria took the territory of Lesser Poland. Russia - captured Livonia, the Belarusian cities of Polotsk, Vitebsk and some part of the Minsk Voivodeship. Prussia received the so-called Greater Poland and Gdansk. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. In 1773 destroyed the Jesuit Order. All internal affairs were handled by the ambassador, who sat in the capital Warsaw, and throughout Poland since 1780. permanent troops from Russia were stationed.

May 3, 1791 The winners created a set of laws - the Constitution of Poland. Poland turned into a hereditary monarchy. All executive power belonged to ministers and parliament. They are elected once every 2 years. The “Liberium veto” is abolished by the constitution. Judicial and administrative autonomy was given to cities. A regular army was organized. The first prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were accepted. The history of Poland received worldwide recognition, because the constitution became the first written constitution in Europe, and the second in the whole world.

Such reforms did not suit the magnates who created the Targowitz Confederation. They asked for even more support from Russian and Prussian troops, and the result of such help was the subsequent division of the state. January 23, 1793 became the day of the next section. Territories such as the city of Gdansk, Torun, the territories of Greater Poland, and Mazovia were attached to Prussia. The Russian Empire took over a huge part of the territories that belonged to Lithuania and Belarus, Volyn and Podolia. Poland was torn apart and ceased to be considered a state.

This turn in the history of Poland could not happen without protests and uprisings. March 12, 1794 Tadeusz Kosciuszko became the leader of a massive popular uprising against the usurpers. The motto was the revival of Polish independence and the return of lost lands. On this day, Polish soldiers went to Krakow. And already on March 24, the city was liberated. On April 4, the peasants near Racławice defeated the tsarist troops. On April 17-18, Warsaw was liberated. This was done by artisans under the leadership of J. Kilinki. The same detachment liberated Vilna on April 22-23. The taste of victory led the rebels to demand decisive action and the continuation of the revolution. On May 7, Kosciuszko created the Polanets station wagon, but the peasants did not like it. A series of defeats in battles, troops from Austria and the offensive of Russian troops on August 11 under the leadership of the famous general A.V. Suvorov forced the rebels to leave Vilna and other cities. On November 6, Warsaw surrendered. The end of November became sad, the tsarist troops suppressed the uprising.

In 1795 the so-called third partition of Poland occurred. Poland was erased from the world map.

The further history of Poland was no less heroic, but also sad. The Poles did not want to put up with the absence of their country and did not give up trying to return Poland to its former power. They acted independently in uprisings, or were part of the troops of countries that fought against the occupiers. In 1807 When Napoleon defeated Prussia, Polish troops played an important role in this victory. Napoleon gained power over the captured territories of Poland during the 2nd partition and created there the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815). In 1809 he annexed to this principality the lands lost after the 3rd partition. Such a small Poland delighted the Poles and gave them hope for complete liberation.

In 1815 when Napoleon was defeated, the so-called Congress of Vienna was assembled and territorial changes took place. Krakow became autonomous with a protectorate (1815-1848). The joy of the people, as it became, the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw lost its western lands, which were taken over by Prussia. She turned them into her own Duchy of Poznań (1815-1846); The eastern part of the country received the status of a monarchy - under the name “Kingdom of Poland”, and went to Russia.

In November 1830 There was an unsuccessful uprising of the Polish population against the Russian Empire. The same fate awaited opponents of the government in 1846 and 1848. In 1863 The January uprising broke out, but for two years it did not achieve success. There was an active Russification of the Poles. In 1905-1917 Poles took part in 4 Russian Dumas, while actively seeking national autonomy for Poland.

In 1914 the world was drowned in the fires and devastation of the First World War. Poland received, as well as the hope of gaining independence, because the dominant countries fought among themselves, and many problems. The Poles had to fight for the country to which the territory belonged; Poland became a springboard for military operations; The war exacerbated an already tense situation. Society was divided into two camps. Roman Dmovsky (1864-1939) and his associates believed that Germany was creating all the problems and fiercely supported cooperation with the Entente. They wanted to unite all the once Polish lands into autonomy under the protection of Russia. Representatives of the Polish Socialist Party acted more radically; their main desire was the defeat of Russia. Liberation from Russian oppression was the main condition for independence. The party insisted on creating independent armed forces. Józef Pilsudski created and led garrisons of the people's army and took the side of Austria-Hungary in the battle.

Russian ruler Nicholas I, in his 1914 declaration of August 14, promised to accept the autonomy of Poland with all its lands under the protection of the Russian Empire. Germany and Austria-Hungary, in turn, two years later, on November 5, announced a manifesto, which stated that the Kingdom of Poland would be created in territories that belonged to Russia. In the month of August 1917 in France they created the so-called Polish National Committee, whose leaders were Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski. Józef Haller was called to become commander-in-chief of the army. The history of Poland received an impetus for development on January 8, 1918. Wilson, the US President, insisted on the restoration of Poland. He called for Poland to regain its position and become an independent country with open access to the Baltic Sea. At the beginning of June she was recognized as a supporter of the Entente. October 6, 1918 Taking advantage of the confusion in government structures, the Polish Regency Council made a declaration of independence. November 11, 1918 power passed to Marshal Pilsudski. The country received the long-awaited freedom, but faced certain difficulties: lack of borders, national currency, government structures, devastation and fatigue of the people. But the desire to develop gave an unreal impetus to action. And January 17, 1919 At the fateful Versailles Conference, the territorial borders of Poland were determined: Pomerania was attached to its territory, access to the sea was opened, Gdansk received the status of a free city. July 28, 1920 the large city of Cieszyn and its suburbs were divided between two countries: Poland and Czechoslovakia. February 10, 1920 Vilna joined.

On April 21, 1920, Pilsudski teamed up with the Ukrainian Petlyura and dragged Poland into the war with the Bolsheviks. The result was an attack by the Bolshevik army on Warsaw, but they were defeated.

Poland's foreign policy was aimed at a policy of not joining any country or union. January 25, 1932 signed a bilateral non-aggression treaty with the USSR. January 26, 1934 a similar pact was signed with Germany. This idyll did not last long. Germany demanded that the city, which was free, Gdansk, be given over to them and given the opportunity to build highways and a railway across the Polish border.

April 28, 1939 Germany broke the non-aggression pact, and on August 25 a German battleship landed on the territory of Gdansk. Hitler explained his actions with the salvation of the German people, who were under the yoke of the Polish authorities. They also staged a cruel provocation. On August 31, German soldiers dressed in Polish uniforms burst into the radio station studio in the city of Gleiwitz, accompanied by gunfire, and read a Polish text that called for war with Germany. This message was broadcast on all radio stations in Germany. And September 1, 1939 at 4 hours 45 minutes, armed German troops began shelling Polish buildings, aviation destroyed everything from the air, and the infantry sent its forces to Warsaw. Germany began its "lightning war". 62 infantry divisions and 2 air fleets were supposed to quickly break through and destroy the Polish defenses. The Polish command also had a secret plan called "West" in case of military conflict. Behind this plan, the army had to prevent the enemy from reaching vital areas, carry out active mobilization and, having received support from Western countries, launch a counteroffensive. The Polish army was significantly inferior to the German one. 4 days were enough for the Germans to travel 100 km into the interior of the country. Within a week, cities such as Krakow, Kielce and Lodz were occupied. On the night of September 11, German tanks entered the suburbs of Warsaw. On September 16, the cities were captured: Bialystok, Brest-Litovsk, Przemysl, Sambir and Lvov. Polish troops, with the support of the population, waged a guerrilla war. On September 9, the Poznan garrison defeated the enemy over Bzura, and the Hel Peninsula did not surrender until October 20. Following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact on September 17, 1939. Like clockwork, the powerful Red Army entered the territory of western Ukraine and Belarus. On September 22, she easily entered Lviv.

On September 28, Ribbentrop signed an agreement in Moscow, according to which the border between Germany and the USSR was designated by the Curzon Line. During the 36 days of the war, Poland was divided for the fourth time, between two totalitarian states.

The war brought a lot of grief and destruction to the country. Everyone suffered, regardless of their former power or wealth. The Jews suffered the most in this war. Poland was no exception in this regard. The Holocaust on its territory took on a horrific character. There were justified concentration camps for prisoners. They were not just killed there, they were mocked there and incredible experiments were carried out. Auschwitz is considered the largest death camp, but there were many smaller ones scattered throughout the country, and sometimes several in each city. People were scared and doomed.

On April 19, 1943, the inhabitants of the Warsaw ghetto could not stand it and began an uprising on the night of Passover. Out of 400 thousand. At that time, only 50-70 thousand Jews remained alive in the ghetto. of people. When the police entered the ghetto for a new batch of victims, the Jews opened fire on them. Methodically, in the following weeks, the SS corrals exterminated the inhabitants. The ghetto was set on fire and razed to the ground. In May the Great Synagogue was blown up. The Germans declared the end of the uprising on May 16, 1943, although outbreaks of fighting continued until June 1943.

Another large-scale uprising occurred on August 1, 1944. in Warsaw, as part of Operation Storm. The main goal of the uprising was to oust the German army from the city and show independence to the Soviet authorities. The beginning was rosy, the army was able to take control of most of the city. For various reasons, the Soviet army stopped its offensive. September 14, 1944 The first Polish army strengthened its positions on the eastern bank of the Vistula and helped the rebels move to the western bank. The attempt was not successful and only 1200 people were able to do it. Winston Churchill demanded radical action from Stalin to help the uprising, but this was unsuccessful, and the Royal Air Force carried out 200 sorties and dropped aid and military ammunition directly from the plane. But even this could not turn the Warsaw Uprising into a success and it was soon brutally suppressed. The number of victims is not known for certain, but they say that there were 16,000 killed and 6,000 wounded, and this is only during the fighting. In the operations carried out by the Germans to clear out the rioters, about 150-200,000 civilians died. 85% of the entire city was destroyed.

For another year, the history of Poland experienced murders and destruction, a year of constant fighting and hostilities lasted. The Polish army took part in all battles against the Nazis. She was a participant in various missions.

January 17, 1945 the capital was liberated from the Nazis. Germany announced its surrender.

The First Polish Army was the second largest after the Soviet one, which took part in the war, and in particular in the storming of Berlin.

May 2, 1945 During the battles for Berlin, Polish troops planted the white and red flag of victory on the Prussian Victory Column and on the Brandenburg Gate. On this day, the modern history of Poland celebrates the national flag day.

On February 4-11, 1945, at the so-called Yalta Conference, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to annex the territories of Poland located in the east to the USSR. Poland compensates for the lost territories by receiving what were once German lands.

On July 5, 1945, the Polish Lublin government was temporarily recognized as legitimate. Non-communists could also apply for a place in management. In August, a decision was made to annex to Poland the territories that belonged to the eastern parts of Prussia and Germany. 15% of the 10 billion reparations that Germany paid were supposed to go to Poland. Post-war Poland became communist. Regular troops of the Red Army began hunting for members of various party forces. Bolesława Bieruta, a communist representative, became president. An active process of Stalinization began. In September 19948 General Secretary Wladyslaw Gomulka was removed from office due to his nationalist deviations. In the process of merging two - the Polish Workers' and Polish Socialist parties - in 1948, a new Polish United Workers' Party appeared. In 1949, the so-called United Peasant Party was approved. Poland received membership in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance of the USSR. June 7, 1950 The GDR and Poland signed an agreement, beyond which the Polish border in the west was located along the Oder-Neisse - the distribution line. To create a military coalition against the main enemy of the USSR - NATO, in 1955. The Warsaw Pact was signed. The coalition included countries such as the USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and for some time Albania.

Dissatisfaction with Stalin's policies led to mass riots in 1956. in Poznan. 50tis. people, workers and students, opposed the prevailing Soviet oppression. In October of this year, the nationalist-minded Gomulka became the general secretary of the PUWP. He reveals all the abuses of power within the Communist Party, reveals the truth about Stalin and his policies. Removes from the posts of the chairman of the Sejm, also Rokossovsky and many other officers from the union. Through his actions he won a certain neutrality from the USSR. The lands were returned to the peasants, freedom of speech appeared, trade and industry were given the green light for all undertakings, workers could intervene in the management of enterprises, warm relations with the church were restored, and the production of missing goods was established. The USA gave its economic assistance.

In the 1960s, the restored Soviet power reversed almost all of Gomulk's reforms. The pressure on the country increased again: peasant partnerships, censorship and anti-religious policies returned.

In 1967, the famous Rolling Stones give a concert in Warsaw at the Palace of Culture.

And in March 1968 Student anti-Soviet demonstrations swept across the country. The result of which was arrests and emigration. In the same year, the country's leadership refused to support the reforms of the so-called “Prague Spring”. In August, under pressure from the USSR, Polish troops took part in the occupation of Czechoslovakia.

December 1970 was marked by mass demonstrations in the cities of Gdansk, Gdynia and Szczecin. People opposed the increase in prices for various goods, and mainly for food. It all ended sadly. About 70 workers were killed and about 1,000 were injured. Constant persecution and persecution of the “dissatisfied” led to the creation in 1798. The Committee for Public Defense, which was the first stage for creating an opposition.

October 16, 1978 The new Pope is not an Italian, but the Bishop of Krakow - Karol Wojtyla (John Paul II). He directs his work towards bringing the church closer to people.

In July 1980, food prices soared again. A wave of strikes swept the country. The working class protested in Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin. This movement was also supported by miners in Silesia. The strikers formed committees and soon they developed 22 demands. They were of an economic and political nature. People demanded lower prices, higher wages, the creation of trade unions, lower levels of censorship, and the right to rallies and strikes. The management accepted almost all the demands. This led to the fact that workers began en masse to join trade union associations independent from the state, which soon turned into the Solidarity federation. Its leader was Lech Walesa. The main demand of the workers was permission to manage enterprises themselves, appoint management and select personnel. In September, Solidarity called on workers throughout Eastern Europe to form free trade unions. In December, workers demanded a referendum to decide the power of the Soviet Communist Party in Poland. This statement had an immediate reaction.

On December 13, 1981, Jaruzelski declared martial law in the country and arrested all Solidarity leaders. Strikes broke out and were quickly suppressed.

In 1982 Trade unions were established under national leadership.

In July 1983 Pope John Paul II arrived in the country, which led to the lifting of the protracted martial law. Pressure from international society granted amnesty to prisoners in 1984.

During 1980-1987. The economic situation in Poland was deteriorating. Workers also went hungry in the summer of 1988. strikes began in factories and mines. The government called on Solidarity leader Lech Walesa for help. These negotiations received the symbolic name of the “Round Table”. It was decided to hold free elections and legalize Solidarity.

June 4, 1989 elections were held. Solidarity took the lead, overtaking the Communist Party, and took all the leading positions in the government. Tadeusz Mazowiecki became the country's prime minister. A year later, Lech Walesa became president. His leadership lasted one term.

In 1991 The Cold War has officially ended. The Warsaw Pact was terminated. Beginning of 1992 pleased with the active growth of GNP, new market institutions were created. Poland began active economic development. In 1993 An opposition was formed - the Union of Democratic Left Forces.

At the next elections, Aleksander Kwasniewski, the head of the Social Democratic Party, ascended to the presidency. His government did not get off to an easy start. Members of parliament demanded an active policy to dismiss traitors to the country and those who had collaborated or worked for the union for a long time, and then Russia. They put forward a law on lustration, but it did not pass the number of votes. And in October 1998, Kwasniewski signed this law. Everyone who was in power had to frankly admit their ties with Russia. They were not fired from their positions, but this knowledge became public knowledge. If suddenly someone did not confess, and such evidence was found, then the official was prohibited from holding office for 10 years.

In 1999 Poland has become an active member of the NATO alliance. In 2004 joined the European Union.

Elections 2005 brought victory to Lech Kaczynski.

In November 2007, Donald Tusk was elected prime minister. This government structure managed to maintain a stable political and economic situation. And even during the crisis of 2008. the Poles did not feel any big problems. In managing foreign policy, they chose neutrality and avoided conflicts with both the EU and Russia.

Plane crash in April 2010 took the lives of the president and representatives of the color of Polish society. This was a dark page in the history of Poland. People mourned a just leader, and the country plunged into mourning for a long time.

After the tragic incident, it was decided to hold early elections. The first round was on June 20 and the second on July 4, 2010. In the second round, Bronislaw Komorowski, a representative of the party called “Civic Platform”, won with 53% of the votes, overtaking L. Kaczynski’s brother, Jaroslaw Kaczynski.

Party "Civil Platform" October 9, 2011 won the parliamentary elections. The following parties also came to power: “Law and Justice” J. Kaczynski, “Palikot Movement” J. Palikot, PSL - Polish peasant party leader W. Pawlak and the Union of Left Democratic Forces. The ruling Civic Platform party has formed a coalition with the up-and-coming PSL. Donald Tusk was again chosen as Prime Minister.

In 2004 he was elected President of the European Council.

The history of Poland has passed a long and very difficult road to becoming an independent state. Today it is one of the developed and strong countries of the European Union. Harvested fields, high-quality roads, good salaries and prices, folk crafts, modern education, assistance to the disabled and low-income people, developed industry, economy, courts and governing bodies, and most importantly, a people who are so proud of their country and would not trade it for anything in the world. – make Poland the country we know, appreciate and respect. Poland has proven by its example that even from a completely destroyed, fragmented state it is possible to build a new competitive country.